John Updike`s A&P Essay Example for Free

John Updike's AP Essay â€Å"A P† is first-individual account uncovering the deceptively customary story related by the checkout kid in the market named in the title. In â€Å"A P† the principal individual storyteller is characterized to a great extent by his tone and jargon. Updike forms his hero using explicit composing style, along these lines Sammy is easygoing and informal. The clients in his basic food item are alluded to as â€Å"the sheep† the ordinariness of which has been one day upset by the presence of an explicitly uninhibited, youngsters in swimming outfits. Reviewing the three young ladies as they meander the paths, Sammy depicts the young ladies, and here Updike’s style is productively inebriated with the portrayal of the young ladies with the trips of slang language, attempting to show why these adolescents merit the penance: thick with â€Å"a sweet expansive delicate looking can†, bosoms, then again, become â€Å"two smooth scoops of vanilla†, the shoulder bones become â€Å"dented sheet of metal tilted in the light†. Also, Sammy’s portrayal is grease with the talk markers that make his progression of portrayal gentler and folksy: â€Å"kind of jerk†; â€Å"she sort of drove them†; â€Å"she had kind of oaky hair† The casual style is communicated in the jargon of the hero as well as in the abused sentence structures. Updikes uniqueness lies in his procedure of separation. Coming in descriptive word or verb modifier modifiers instead of fundamental sentence components, the unexpected stance rises without influencing plot: â€Å"and a tall one, with dark hair that hadnt very frizzed right, and one of these burns from the sun directly across under the eyes, and a jaw that was too longyou know, the sort of young lady different young ladies believe is very â€Å"striking† and â€Å"attractive† yet never entirely makes it, as they probably am aware, which is the reason they like her so much† Not uncommon are likewise broken structures like: â€Å"She had on a sort of grimy pinkbeige perhaps, I dont knowbathing suit†, or â€Å"The sheep pushing their trucks down the aislethe young ladies were strolling against the standard traffic (not that we have single direction signs or anything)were quite humorous. † The story is introduced through the current state portrayal. Such decision of language structure method bestows portrayal the feeling of instantaneousness, makes it an annal of one occasion, with the goal that peruser feels as though he himself is an observer of that occasion. â€Å"IN WALKS these three young ladies in only washing suits†, â€Å"The young ladies, and whod accuse them, are in a rush to get out, †, â€Å"Lengel murmurs and starts to look extremely patient and old and dim. † Updikes striking descriptive words show up frequently: â€Å"kind of grimy pinkbeige maybe†, â€Å"chubby berry-face†, â€Å"long white diva legs†, â€Å"the feline and-pooch food-breakfastcereal-macaroni-rice-raisins-seasonings-spreadsspaghetti-sodas wafers and-treats aisle†; Their rudeness increments what's more abstract incongruity, they produce an uncertainty of purpose or author’s mentality (consequently word usage) in his story, which is coordinated to some degree by sudden similitudes or visual correlations, as â€Å"two smoothest scoops of vanilla†, â€Å"outside the daylight is skating around on the black-top outside the daylight is skating around on the asphalt†, â€Å"his back [was] solid, as though hed simply had an infusion of iron†. These figures, albeit fitting practically to the content, regularly point out themselves and piece out Updike’s style. Updike, John (1962) Pigeon Feathers, and Other Stories. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

How the Photosynthetic Process Works in Trees

How the Photosynthetic Process Works in Trees Photosynthesis is a significant procedure that licenses plants, including trees, to utilize their leaves to trap the suns vitality as sugar. The leaves at that point store the subsequent sugar in cells as glucose for both prompt and laterâ tree development. Photosynthesis speaks to a perfectly magnificent concoction process in which six particles of water from roots consolidate with six atoms of carbon dioxide from the air and makes one particle of natural sugar. Of equivalent significance is the side-effect of this procedure photosynthesis is the thing that produces oxygen. There would be no life on earth as we probably am aware it without the photosynthetic process.â The Photosynthetic Process in Trees The term photosynthesis implies assembling with light. It is an assembling procedure that occurs inside cells of plants and inside little bodies called chloroplasts. These plastids are situated in the cytoplasm of leaves and they contains the green shading matter called chlorophyll. At the point when photosynthesis happens, water that has been consumed by the trees attaches is conveyed to leaves where it interacts with the layers of chlorophyll. Simultaneously, air, containing carbon dioxide, is taken into leaves by means of leaf pores and presented to daylight, bringing about a significant compound response. Water is separated into its oxygen and nitrogen components, and it joins with carbon dioxide in the chlorophyll to frame sugar. This oxygen discharged by trees and different plants turns into a piece of the air we breath, while the glucose is conveyed to different pieces of the plant as sustenance. This fundamental procedure is what will think about 95 percent of the mass in a tree, and photosynthesis by trees and different plants is the thing that contributes almost all the oxygen noticeable all around we breathe.â Here is theâ chemical condition for the procedure of photosynthesis: 6 particles of carbon dioxide 6 atoms of water light â†' glucose oxygen The Importance of Photosynthesis Numerous procedures happen in a tree leaf, however none more significant than photosynthesis and the subsequent nourishment it makes and the oxygen itâ produces as a result. Through the enchantment of green plants, the brilliant vitality of the sun is caught in a leafs structure and made accessible to every living thing. With the exception of a couple of sorts of microorganisms, photosynthesis is the main procedure on earth by which natural mixes are built from inorganic substances, coming about in put away energy.â About 80 percent of the earths complete photosynthesis is delivered in the sea. Its assessed that 50 to 80 percent of the universes oxygen is created by sea vegetation, however the basic residual bit is produced by earthbound vegetation, specific the earths forests  So the weight is continually on the earthbound plant world to keep up the pace. The loss of the universes woods has broad outcomes as far as the trading off the level of oxygen in the earths air. What's more, on the grounds that the procedure of photosynthesis devours carbon dioxide, trees, and other vegetation, are a methods by which the earth cleans out carbon dioxide and replaces it with unadulterated oxygen. It is very basic for urban areas to keep up a sound urban backwoods so as to keep up great air quality.â Photosynthesis and The History of Oxygen Oxygen has not generally been available on earth. The earth itself is evaluated to be aroundâ 4.6â billion years old, yet researchers considering geologic proof accept that oxygen previously showed up about 2.7 billion years prior, when minute cyanobacteria, also called blue green growth, built up the capacity to photosynthesize daylight into sugars and oxygen. It took around a billion additional years for enough oxygen to gather in the climate to help early types of earthly life.â It is indistinct exactly what happened 2.7 billion years back to cause cynobacteria to build up the procedure that makes life on earth conceivable. It stays one of sciences most charming puzzles.

Discussing a Best Practise when reviewing a case study - 1100 Words

Discussing a Best Practise when reviewing a case study (Essay Sample) Content: Discussing a "Best Practice" when reviewing a case study (Author’s name) (Institution Affiliation) (Course Name) (Date) Discussing a "Best Practice" when reviewing a case study Steps of Case Study Analysis It is considered coherent to use a structured control strategy in examining a case study since that makes the entire process easier and increases learning benefits. It is impromptu to read the situation thoroughly in order to understand the context of occurring situation. As such, the situation needs to be studied effectively & efficiently (Chrissis et al, 2003). For instance, a market researcher is advised to study rather quickly the first time to get an introduction to the market, the company, the people, and the situation. Defining the problem is essential for a case analysis. Many cases will include several problems or problems. Recognize the most essential problems and segregate them from the simpler problems. After determining what seems to be a major problem, analyze related problems in the running areas (for example, marketing, finance, employees). Efficient area problems may help you identify deep-rooted problems that are the liability of top control (Runeson, 2009). Company’s objectives should always be at the forefront of operation and risk assessment officers. Variance between a company's objectives and its efficiency may further emphasize the problems. At the very least, determining the company's objectives will provide information for accessing and managing current & future problems. Identify the restrictions to the problem according to Teagarden et al, (1995). The restrictions may restrict the solutions available to the company. Common restrictions include restricted financial situation, deficiency of additional manufacturing potential, employees’ restrictions, powerful opponents, connections with providers and customers, and so on. Constraints have to be regarded when indicating a remedy. Identify all the appropriate solutions. The list should all the appropriate solutions that could fix the problems that have been recognized. Use creativeness in coming up with substitute solutions. Even when solutions are recommended in the situation, you may be able to recommend better solutions (Schiffauerova, 2006). Select the best substitute. Assess each substitute in light of the available information. If you have properly taken the continuing five steps, the answer to the situation should be obvious. Stay away to leap to this phase early in the situation research. You will probably skip essential information, misunderstand the problem, or skip what may be the best substitute remedy. You will also need to describe the reasoning you used to choose one substitute and decline the others. Develop an execution strategy. The ultimate phase in the research is to create a strategy for effective execution of your choice. Absence of an execution strategy even for a very excellent choice can lead to catastrophe for a company and researcher (Sarwar, 2000). Determine and Define the Research Questions The first step in analysis studies is to establish a firm concentrate or rather specializes in which brand of product (Darke, 1998). The researcher determines the main points of the analysis by forming concerns about the situation or issue to be analyzed and determining an objective for the analysis. The analysis process is often a program, an entity, a person, or a people (Bellg, 2005). Each item is likely to be delicately connected to political, social, historical, and personal issues, providing far reaching possibilities for concerns and adding complexity to the analysis. The researcher looks into the item of the analysis in depth using a variety of data gathering techniques to produce proof that results in understanding of the situation and solutions the analysis concerns. Case analysis research analysis questions are known to begin with certain words like how, when, which or why (Bapuji, 2004). The concerns are targeted to a small number of events or conditions and their inter-relationships (Noe, 2002). To assist in targeting and developing the concerns, researchers conduct a literary works evaluation. This evaluation determines what analysis has been previously performed and results in refined, informative concerns about the issue (Christmann, 2000). Careful meaning of the concerns at the start pinpoints where to look for proof and helps determine the techniques of analysis to be used in the analysis. The literary works evaluation, meaning of the objective of the analysis, and early determination of the potential audience for the final report guide how the analysis will be designed, performed, and publicly reported (Groves, 2007). Select the Cases and Determine Data Gathering and Analysis Techniques During the design phase of research, the researcher decides what techniques to use in choosing individual or several real-life situations to analyze in d epth and which instruments and information collecting techniques to use (Alavi, 2001). When using several techniques, each technique is treated as only one hypothesis. Each situation conclusions can then be used as information contributing to the whole research, but each technique remains only as a formulated question. Exemplary situation studies properly choose situations and analyze properly the choices available from among many research resources available in order to increase the validity of the research. Careful discrimination at the point of selection also helps erect boundaries around the situation (Yildiz, 2007). The researcher must determine whether to research situations which are unique in some way or situations which are considered typical and may also choose situations to represent a wide range of geographic regions, a wide range of size factors, or other factors (Bhutta et al, 1999). A useful step in the process is to repeatedly refer back to the objective of the resea rch in order to focus attention on where to look for situations and proof that will satisfy the objective of the research and response the research concerns posed (Guest, 1997). Selecting several or individual situations is a key element, but a research can include more than one unit of embedded research. For example, a research may involve research of only one market and a firm participating in that market. This type of research includes two levels of research and increases the complexity and amount of information to be collected and analyzed. A key strength of the research method includes using several sources and techniques in the information collecting process. The researcher decides in advance what proof to gather and what research techniques to use with the information to response the research concerns. Data collected is normally largely qualitative, but it may also be quantitative (Hinkin, 1995). Tools to collect information can include surveys, interviews, documentation revi ew, observation, and even the collection of physical artifacts. Bibliography Alavi, Maryam, and Dorothy E. Leidner. "Review: Knowledge management and knowledge management systems: Conceptual foundations and resea...

The Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald - 1338 Words

As the Roaring Twenties emerge nationwide, a new sense of optimism and hopefulness begin to develop throughout all walks of life. Society is rapidly changing, and the 20’s create a time in which one believes they can create a new beginning and achieve their grand ambitions and aspirations. It was an era of liberation and many took advantage of the time to branch out and find themselves in a society that usually rejected change. Women often resisted against the social norm and eliminated their long held beliefs about proper roles for their gender. They began to embrace their sexuality by defying conventional attire and discarding the standard of how women should act in public. They began by cutting their hair into a short bob, wearing†¦show more content†¦In the beginning of the novel, Daisy is portrayed as a well-liked character embodying purity in an otherwise corrupt and malicious environment. She is first illustrated and introduced to be on â€Å"†¦an enormou s couch†¦buoyed up as though upon an anchored balloon, [dressed] in white. [Her dress] was rippling and fluttering as if [she] had just been blown back in, after a short flight around the house† (Fitzgerald 8). This image of her looking so peacefully relaxed in East Egg New York, in a red and white Gregorian Colonial Mansion that overlooks the bay, paints Daisy in a beautiful scenario. It makes her appear as an angel like figure embellishing that she represents all that is good in a corrupt society. Relating Daisy to innocence is a deception of what she truly symbolizes and craves. Daisy constantly wears white to mask the fact that wealth is an essential part of her life that she wishes would grow. Daisy has an ongoing extreme attachment to materialistic goods clearly shown when â€Å"[Gatsby] took out a pile of shirts and began throwing them one by one†¦shirts of sheer linen and thick silk and fine flannel lost their folds as they fell and covered the table. Daisy bent her head into the shirts and began to cry stormily† (92). She regrets not canceling the wedding between her and Tom because she sees how wealthy Gatsby is

The Civil Rights Act Of 1964 - 1106 Words

â€Å"After the end of Reconstruction in 1877, southern states and local communities began to enact laws known as segregation or Jim Crow laws. These measures separated the races in public accommodations. Rather than passing one sweeping law, local and state legislators in the South passed a series of laws between 1881 and 1910 that required separate accommodations for blacks and whites in public spaces. These laws were indicative of the hardening of the philosophy of white supremacy throughout the South during this time.†(Cassanello). The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was the most influential event in the Civil Rights Movement because it paved way for ending discrimination and segregation, and giving more rights to African- Americans. During the Civil Rights Movement African- Americans were fighting to get their rights that were being taken away from them little by little. Starting in 1955 and going well into the late 1960’s early 1970’s, African- Americans started to protest against discriminatory laws and acts such as Jim Crow Laws and various requirements to vote. They did this because they wanted to be treated as equals and not to be judged because of their race(Mayer). Enacted on July 2, 1964, the Civil Rights Act provided many of the rights and freedoms African- Americans should of had after the 14th, 15th, and 16th amendments were passed(Finkelman). The Act abolished legal discrimination against people based off of color and/or race and segregation in public vicinitiesShow MoreRelatedCivil Rights Act of 19641840 Words   |  8 PagesBefore the Civil Rights Act of 1964, segregation in the United States was commonly practiced in many of the Southern and Border States. This segregation while supposed to be separate but equal, was hardly that. Blacks in the South were discriminated against repeatedly while laws did nothing to protect their individual rights. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ridded the nation of this legal segregation and cleared a path towards equality and integration. The passage of this Act, while forever alteringRead More Civil Rights Act of 1964 Essay1338 Words   |  6 Pages The Civil Rights Act of 1964 resulted from one of t he most controversial House and Senate debates in history. It was also the biggest piece of civil rights legislation ever passed. The bill actually evolved from previous civil rights bills in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s. The bill passed through both houses finally on July 2, 1964 and was signed into law at 6:55 P.M. EST by President Lyndon Johnson. The act was originally drawn up in 1962 under President Kennedy before his assassinationRead MoreEssay on Civil Rights Act of 19646131 Words   |  25 PagesThe Civil Rights Act of 1964 Danielle Endler Human Resources 4050, Spring 2013 Semester Professor David Penkrot May 3, 2013 The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is considered by some to be one of the most important laws in American history. (The Most Important Cases, Speeches, Laws Documents in American History) This Act was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 2, 1964 and it is a â€Å"comprehensive federal statute aimed at reducing discrimination in public accommodations and employmentRead MoreThe Civil Rights Act Of 1964879 Words   |  4 PagesPresident John F. Kennedy s New Frontier programs, Johnson wanted to expand civil rights and wage war on poverty. More than fifty years later, the effects of the Great Society on American life can still be felt. Civil rights fell under the scope of Johnson s Great Society programs. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, a law that ended discrimination in the US at all levels of government. Without the Civil Rights Act of 1964, blacks and other people of color would not have the opportunity to runRead MoreThe Civil Rights Act Of 1964925 Words   |  4 PagesAmericans and even immigrants are afforded their basic civil rights based on the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act, which was signed into law on July 2, 1964, declared all discrimination for any reason based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin will be deemed illegal in the United States (National Park Service, n.d.). When the act was enacted, people had to become more open minded; more accepting to the various cultures and backgrounds of individuals. Understanding that concept leadsRead MoreThe Civil Rights Act Of 1964848 Words   |  4 PagesVII, Civil Rights Act of 1964, followed by a brief description of person al experiences involving discrimination, and concluding with a reflection as to how the American workforce is protected by law. The writing will cover any ethically related issues, personal thoughts and ideas, and illustrations of how the law pertains directly to personal events, as well as provide direct links to any and all reference material covered under the purpose of this writing. Title VII, Civil Rights Act of 1964 TheRead MoreThe Civil Rights Act Of 19641702 Words   |  7 Pagessubject to, and the subject of, discrimination. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 originally did not include gender in the bill’s wording. Were it not for a backhanded comment made in jest by a backward congressman, women would not have been afforded equal rights protection in employment (Freeman, 1991; 2004). President Harry Truman inaugurated the legal Civil Rights Movement. Though people of color had long been yearning and fighting for their rights, President Truman began this legal process nationallyRead MoreThe Civil Rights Act Of 1964880 Words   |  4 Pagesbetween conflicting viewpoints are still being faced by Americans today. (Tiona/Claire) Equality for African Americans has made remarkable progress since the approval of the Civil Rights Act, but discrimination continues. A significant step towards racial equality was the Civil Rights Act of 1964, proposed by John F. Kennedy. This act brought an end to segregation in public facilities such as buses, restaurants, hotels, and places of entertainment. It also banned employment discrimination on the termsRead MoreThe Civil Right Act Of 19641072 Words   |  5 PagesTitle VII of the Civil Right Act of 1964, and both under the Disparate Treatment and Disparate Impact. Dunlap feels that he has been discriminated during the interview process. The district court concluded that TVAs subjective hiring process permitted racial bias against the plaintiff and other black job applicants. Tennessee Valley Authorities was found guilty of discrimination against the plaintiff. The Title Vii of the Civil Right Act of 1964 enforces the constitutional right to vote, to conferRead MoreThe Civil Rights Act Of 19641659 Words   |  7 Pagestask of passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, officially outlawing discrimination on the basis of origin, gender, race or religion. Discrimination was an issue that not only permeated educational, governmental, occupational and recreational institutions, but also affected the way in which the Bill of Rights was applied to certain groups of people. Though much of the focus of the movement focused on race, women were still fighting to be seen as equal to men. The Civil Rights Act was passed by Congress

Of Mice and Men Essay Summary Example For Students

Of Mice and Men Essay Summary Of Mice and Men By: John Stienbeck In the beginning of the story, two men named George Milton and Lennie Small are trying to make their way to a small ranch in Salinas Valley, California. George is the leader of their two-man tribe, despite Lennies intimidating size. George is filled with Determination and confidence while Lennie is a simple man with a big heart. Up north, they had recently been run out of a town called Weed on account of Lennie. First of all, Lennie is not very smart, and becomes frightened and confused easily. Also, he enjoys petting animals and feeling things that grab his attention. One night in Weed, Lennie and George had gone to a pool hall. Lennie saw a girl wearing a bright red dress. He grabbed on to the sleeve of her dress. The girl became scared and screamed; this frightened Lennie. Lennie, who, as an innocent person, has no bigotry in him, visits Crooks one night when everyone else is in town. Even thought Crooks does not show it, he enjoys Lennie s company, and it seems that he and Lennie form a small friendship that would had developed more has the book been longer. Another soul not included with the ranch clique, Curley s wife, whose name is not mentioned in the book, is new to the ranch as well. She married Curley just weeks before Lennie and George arrived. The ranch hands do not accept this lonely soul into their social group because she is new. However, the ranch hands also do not accept Curley s wife because she obviously is so lonely that the only way she can get attention is by flirting. The only one who does not dismiss her when she flirts is Lennie who is obviously trying to make a friend with another lonely person. These lonely individuals make this novel into a very sad story of real life situations of when people really do not fit in. The idea of obtaining a little farm with animals and crops raised by George and Lennie, and later joined by Candy, an old man, shows how dreams may cause a man to do anything to fulfill that dream. Lennie is the most enthusiastic and determined to gain the small farm and the all-important things — the rabbits. Lennie repeatedly states that he wants to take care of the rabbits. One reason that Lennie wants the rabbits is because he loves soft things, but he also wants to prove George that he will not mess up by forgetting to feed them. George is halfhearted about the idea, but fakes his enthusiasm just to satisfy Lennie. To get away from his nomadic way of life, George supports the farm idea. From his intimations given in the book, George ultimately is searching for a wife and to settle down and start a family. The only way he thinks he can do that is via a small farm. Candy, an older man, wants the farm as a nice place to await his coming death. Candy offers his life savings towards the purchasing of the farm. Since he had a lot of money saved up, the story suggests that Candy has been waiting for an opportunity like this for a long time. Everyone has his or her perfect dream, whether it is a house on the countryside, or a mansion in Beverly Hills. Many of the characters epitomize friendship in each of their different pairs or groups of friends. The friendship between Lennie and George is the strongest in the book and they both watch for each other in different ways. George obviously is the smarter one of the two and handles everything that Lennie cannot comprehend, which is most of the day-to-day events. George s faithfulness to Lennie may be due to a huge promise to Lennie s aunt or he really loves Lennie enough to take really good care of him. Detective thriller EssayIn return for George s watchful eye, Lennie provides protection and security to George. Lennie looks up to George, much like a younger brother would look up to a big brother. The relationship between George and Slim, although not as developed as the relationship between Lennie and George, is still important. When George first arrives at the ranch, Slim instantly befriends him and advises him to keep an eye on Lennie. Also when Lennie kills Curley s wife, Slim comforts George and again advises him to find Lennie before Curley catches him. This type of friendship symbolizes a sort of father-son relationship, with the parent watching over the children, or in this case, the new ranch hands. Lennie, George, and Candy together demonstrate another small friendship that mainly falls out of pity for the old man Candy. When Candy hears of George and Lennie s idea to buy a small farm, he jumps right into the planning and financing. This friendship is the kind that develops over time due to common interests and convenience. There are many types of relationships strong and weak ones but most result in the comfort and happiness of the friends. In summary, Of Mice and Men is a powerful story about human relationships that uses Lennie to symbolize pure intent while using the others to demonstrate that many have hidden reasons for their behavior. The murder of Lennie by his best friend in the end and the killing of the dog give proof of the love that friends have for each other. In this case, the love George had for Lennie was enough to put him out of his misery, instead of being tortured and hanged by Curley. Pure trust and love in adult relationships is an ideal that may be the sole domain of the child-like charm of a retarded adult.

Tinbergen’s Four Questions Regarding Orca Behaviour free essay sample

The type of communication used to transmit information is closely related to the animal’s lifestyle and environment. This can be seen in most terrestrial mammals which are nocturnal so use olfactory and auditory which work as well in the dark as they do during the day. Visual communication would be relatively ineffective in this lifestyle. In contrast humans are diurnal and use primarily visual and auditory signals for communication, but miss many chemical cues which many other mammals base their behaviour upon. Marine mammals often need to communicate great distances, and the water does not support visual cues over great distance. This is why whales and dolphins use primarily auditory signals. Auditory signals can travel great distances and travel four and a half times faster in water than in air (Ford, 1984). Killer whales or Orca (Orcinus orca) are very social dolphins and live in pods often consisting of family members from between four up to fifty for residential whales while transient pods normally are only between two and five animals (Ford, 1989). We will write a custom essay sample on Tinbergen’s Four Questions Regarding Orca Behaviour or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page These pods communicate with each other by use of echolocation clicks, tonal whistles and pulsed calls (Deecke et al. , 2000). The three main noises have very different uses from each other. Clicks can either be produced as a single click or produced in rapid succession. Single clicks are generally used for navigation and collection of clicks and whistles are thought to be used for communication amongst members of the pod. Pulses are believed, with the assistance of single clicks, to be the method used by orcas to distinguish objects and discriminate prey (Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996). Residential orcas feed on fish, and can be frequently heard communicating with the clicks, whistles and calls because the fish have very poor hearing abilities (Wilson, 2002). The vocal behaviour of transient killer whales is quite different with the vocal communication consisting of occasional clicks and pulses (Deecke et al. , 2000). The only occasion where transient orcas display significant amounts of vocal activity is when they are active on the surface or recently after a kill. The reasons for this reduction of noise could be due to many factors which can be seen in other species interactions and behaviour. Using ‘Tinbergen’s four questions’, I will explain what necessity for this behaviour and what the origins of the silent behaviour may have been. Tinbergen’s Four Questions In 1963 Nikolaas Tinbergen published a paper â€Å"On aims and methods of ethology†. In this paper he discussed how he believed any question regarding animal behaviour should be broken down into four different questions. These four questions could be divided into two categories, evolutionary (ultimate) explanations and proximate explanations. The evolutionary explanations, which refer to the population, include evolution or phylogenetic determinants and survival value or adaptive significance. The phylogenetic determinants refer to all evolutionary explanations which are not covered by adaptive significance. These may include random processes including mutation and changes in the environment which could have impacts on the population resulting in a specific behaviour adaptation. The adaptive significance closely follows Charles Darwin’s work on natural selection where it is explained that an animal’s form has been altered to function better in the habitat and resulting in a increase in fitness for the individual. The proximate explanations are focused with dealing in terms of the individual as opposed to the population. The two different individual questions proposed by Tinbergen relate to causation and ontogeny. The causation for a display of behaviour relates to the mechanics of the body and which stimuli provides a cue for the animal to display this behaviour. Included in causation is control of hormones, motor control, central-nervous-system control and the ability to process the information obtained through senses. Ontogeny relates to the development of an individual, from conception til death. This may include a experience or a environmental factor which occurs and changes the behaviour of the animal, including learned behaviour from another individual. Causation ? Figure 1: An illustration of sound generation, propagation and reception in a killer whale. (WhalesB. C. com) The nasopharyngeal anatomy of cetaceans is strongly modified comparing with terrestrial mammals. They have one impair respiratory hole at the top of the head. It is closed near the surface by dense musculocutaneous crimps arranged so, that the salient of one of them enters into the dimple of another. They form a peculiar lock preventing the water from penetrating into respiratory tract. Above the skull around of nose passage there is a system of pneumatic sacs, connected with nose passage (Barrett-Lennard et al. , 1996). In 1964 A. V. Jablokov supposed that sounds could be produced by forcing air through these nasal sacs. Air is forced past a set of finely striated muscular plugs or lips that vibrate or slap against each other as the lips are forced apart by the stream of air and then slapped shut by muscular tension (Ford, 1989). Transient killer whales are often very difficult to track when under water as they are typically silent. Often communicating with each other with just a single click, known as a cryptic click (Deecke et al. , 2000). The only time that the killer whales produce large amounts of vocal activity was when milling about on the surface or after killing a marine mammal. Transients have been found to only use four to six discrete calls which are not shared with the resident pods (Deecke et al. , 2004). Ontogeny Like other aspects of learning in mammalian society, I hypothesise that the newborn calves will be taught the ability for vocalisation by its parent or other pod members. There have been many studies on killer whale vocalisations in different parts of the world including Canada (Ford, 1984), Alaska (Yurk et al. 2002) and Norway (Matkin, 1988). Each study showed that every pod has its own distinctive repertoire of discrete calls, often this phenomenon is referred to as vocal dialects. The differences in vocal repertoires can be the result of geographic isolation and when this occurs it is not dialects that are being represented but â€Å"geographic variations of vocal repertoire† (Ford, 1984 ). The use of repetitive calls and the specific number and type of discrete calls are what are used to classify and compare dialects. Pods often produce between seven and seventeen different types of discrete calls. Some pods share calls and are grouped together as a acoustic clan (Baird et al. , 1988). Different clans might represent different independent maternal lineages, which have persisted for many generations, developing their independent call traditions. Dialects are probably the means by which pod cohesiveness and identity are maintained. Newborn calls manage to produce calls very comparable to their mothers, but the repertoire is very limited. With the arrival of a new calf to the pod, the calls of the pod and particularly the matriarch increase, especially the frequency of pod-specific calls (Ford, 1989). This is widely regarded as the method to which newborns learn the pods dialect. The majority of the learning done by the newborn is a process of imitation and trial and error. The calf does not always learn communication from a parent. In captivity a young whale was observed to have learned the calls of its tank mate, even though it had no relatedness. Survival Value I hypothesise that the because the mammalian predators can hear well under water is the reason why the transient killer whales adopt significantly reduced communication during periods of foraging. Acoustic communication can have great benefits such as organising groups for attacks and avoiding predation. As with all behaviour traits there is a trade off. There is a direct cost of energy required to producing the sounds and along with this is the loss of energy from lack of feeding during times of communicating. There is also a indirect cost, especially for transient killer whales, which pass information on to eavesdroppers. Eavesdroppers may include competitors (Hammond et al. , 2003), predators (Hosken et al. 1994) or for transient killer whales alerting potential prey. Various studies have documented the costs from eavesdropping for prey in the case of predators who utilise echolocation. Bats have been documented preying on frogs performing mating calls by eavesdropping on them (Fenton, 2003). Insects have also been noted as being able to avoid predation from bats by listening to their acoustic projections (Rydell et al. , 1995). Communicative vocalizations are usually not e ssential for prey location unlike echolocation. This is the most likely reason that transient killer whales move in silence or considerably reduced vocal communication while foraging. Evolution I believe that the evolution of marine mammals from a common ancestor hinders the transient killer whales hunting due to the retention of excellent underwater hearing by marine mammals. In Pakistan the discovery of Ambulocetus was remarkable, a three metre long mammal which resembled a crocodile. It is thought to be the transitional fossil starting the mammalian movement towards an aquatic life. By 38 million years ago mammals had fully adapted to a aquatic life with the emergence of Basilosaurus and Dorudon. Although these large marine mammals resembled modern whales and dolphins they lacked the ‘melon organ’ which allows echolocation in their descendants (Ford, et al. , 2000). In the middle of the Oligocene (33 million years ago) a animal called Squalodon is thought to have been the first to use echolocation. With a cranium which was well compressed, and a telescoped rostrum it displayed a skull similar to modern dolphins. A big problem with the hunting marine mammals is that they all have a common ancestor, and all have retained a common lineage of very good hearing. Fish have poor hearing which allows the residential killer whales to freely use communication when hunting. Transient killer whales have been forced to change this behaviour because of their choice of prey including seals, dolphins, porpoises and whales. With all mammals having good underwater hearing they have been required to adopt a reduced vocal communication when searching for prey. Conclusion I believe that the lack of acoustic communication between transient killer whales is due to the ability of their selected prey being able to hear the clicks, whistles and pulses they generate. These sounds can be heard from over seven kilometres away and marine mammals do react to these calls (Deecke et al. , 2002). In the study by Deecke in 2002, he played the sounds of killer whales near a harbour seal colony which resulted in most of the seals displaying strong anti-predator behaviour of leaving the water. This suggests that they are able to clearly hear the calls and understand what is generating them. I believe that other marine mammals will react in a similar way. Guinet (1992) observed the vocal patterns of killer whales around the Crozet Archipelago and came to the same result as Deecke (2004) that the killer whales were silent throughout hunting and searching, but once a mammalian kill was made the pod would greatly increase in vocal activity. While it can be a risk to produce noise after killing a prey, for fear of drawing the attention of other predators or scavengers, killer whales are the apex predator and have no natural predators.